Name : Dharma J. Gohel
Roll No : 08
Class : M.A. Sem-2
Paper – 7 : Literary
Theory & Criticism : The 20th Western & Indian Poetics – 2
Batch : 2017-19
Enrollment No :
2069108420180014
Submitted to : Smt. S. B.
Gardi Department of English, MKBU
Topic : Literary Terms
Modernism:-
Modernism
is a philosophical movement that, along with cultural trends and changes, arose
from wide-scale and far-reaching transformations in Western society during
the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Among the factors that shaped modernism
were the development of modern industrial societies and
the rapid growth of cities, followed then by reactions of horror to World War I. Modernism
also rejected the certainty of Enlightenment thinking,
and many modernists rejected religious belief.
Modernism, in general, includes the activities and creations of those who felt the traditional forms of art, architecture, literature, religious faith, philosophy, social organization, activities of daily life, and even the sciences, were becoming ill-fitted to their tasks and outdated in the new economic, social, and political environment of an emerging fully industrialized world. The poet Ezra Pound's 1934 injunction to "Make it new!" was the touchstone of the movement's approach towards what it saw as the now obsolete culture of the past. In this spirit, its innovations, like the stream-of-consciousnessnovel, atonal (or pantonal) and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting and abstract art, all had precursors in the 19th century.
A notable characteristic of modernism is self-consciousness and irony concerning literary and social traditions, which often led to experiments with form, along with the use of techniques that drew attention to the processes and materials used in creating a painting, poem, building, etc.Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism and makes use of the works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision and parody.[8][9][10]
Some commentators define modernism as a mode of thinking—one or more philosophically defined characteristics, like self-consciousness or self-reference, that run across all the novelties in the arts and the disciplines. More common, especially in the West, are those who see it as a socially progressive trend of thought that affirms the power of human beings to create, improve and reshape their environment with the aid of practical experimentation, scientific knowledge, or technology.From this perspective, modernism encouraged the re-examination of every aspect of existence, from commerce to philosophy, with the goal of finding that which was 'holding back' progress, and replacing it with new ways of reaching the same end. Others focus on modernism as an aesthetic introspection. This facilitates consideration of specific reactions to the use of technology in the First World War, and anti-technological and nihilistic aspects of the works of diverse thinkers and artists spanning the period from Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) to Samuel Beckett (1906–1989).
Post modernism:-
Modernism, in general, includes the activities and creations of those who felt the traditional forms of art, architecture, literature, religious faith, philosophy, social organization, activities of daily life, and even the sciences, were becoming ill-fitted to their tasks and outdated in the new economic, social, and political environment of an emerging fully industrialized world. The poet Ezra Pound's 1934 injunction to "Make it new!" was the touchstone of the movement's approach towards what it saw as the now obsolete culture of the past. In this spirit, its innovations, like the stream-of-consciousnessnovel, atonal (or pantonal) and twelve-tone music, divisionist painting and abstract art, all had precursors in the 19th century.
A notable characteristic of modernism is self-consciousness and irony concerning literary and social traditions, which often led to experiments with form, along with the use of techniques that drew attention to the processes and materials used in creating a painting, poem, building, etc.Modernism explicitly rejected the ideology of realism and makes use of the works of the past by the employment of reprise, incorporation, rewriting, recapitulation, revision and parody.[8][9][10]
Some commentators define modernism as a mode of thinking—one or more philosophically defined characteristics, like self-consciousness or self-reference, that run across all the novelties in the arts and the disciplines. More common, especially in the West, are those who see it as a socially progressive trend of thought that affirms the power of human beings to create, improve and reshape their environment with the aid of practical experimentation, scientific knowledge, or technology.From this perspective, modernism encouraged the re-examination of every aspect of existence, from commerce to philosophy, with the goal of finding that which was 'holding back' progress, and replacing it with new ways of reaching the same end. Others focus on modernism as an aesthetic introspection. This facilitates consideration of specific reactions to the use of technology in the First World War, and anti-technological and nihilistic aspects of the works of diverse thinkers and artists spanning the period from Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) to Samuel Beckett (1906–1989).
Post modernism:-
Postmodernism
describes a broad movement that developed in the mid to late 20th century
across philosophy, the arts, architecture and criticism which marked
a departure frommodernism. While
encompassing a broad range of ideas, postmodernism is typically defined by an
attitude of skepticism, irony or distrust
toward grand
narratives, ideologies and
various tenets of Enlightenment
rationality, including notions of human nature, social progress, objective reality andmorality, absolute truth,
and reason. Instead,
it asserts that claims to knowledge and truth are products of unique social,
historical or political discourses and
interpretations, and are therefore contextual and constructed to varying
degrees. Accordingly, postmodern thought is broadly characterized by tendencies
to epistemological and moral relativism, pluralism,
irreverence and self-referentiality.
The
term postmodernism has been applied both to the era following modernity,
and to a host of movements within that era (mainly in art, music, and
literature) that reacted against tendencies in modernism. Postmodernism
includes skeptical critical
interpretations of culture, literature, art,philosophy, history, linguistics, economics, architecture, fiction, feminist theory,
and literary
criticism. Postmodernism is often associated with schools of thought such
as deconstruction and post-structuralism,
as well as philosophers such as Jean-François
Lyotard and Frederic Jameson.
New Criticism:-
New Criticism:-
New
Criticism was a formalist movement
in literary theory that
dominated American literary criticismin
the middle decades of the 20th century. It emphasized close reading,
particularly of poetry,
to discover how a work of literature functioned as a self-contained,
self-referential aesthetic object. The movement derived its name from John Crowe Ransom's
1941 book The New Criticism. The work of English scholar I. A. Richards,
especially his Practical Criticism and The Meaning of Meaning, which offered
what was claimed to be an empirical scientific approach, were important to the
development of New Critical methodology. Also very influential were
the critical
essays of T.
S. Eliot, such as "Tradition
and the Individual Talent" and "Hamlet and His
Problems", in which Eliot developed his notion of the "objective
correlative". Eliot's evaluative judgments, such as his condemnation
of Milton and Shelley, his liking for the so-called metaphysical poets and his
insistence that poetry must be impersonal, greatly influenced the formation of
the New Critical canon.
New Criticism and Formalism Theory New Criticism developed as a reaction to the older philological and literary history schools of the US North, which, influenced by nineteenth-century German scholarship, focused on the history and meaning of individual words and their relation to foreign and ancient languages, comparative sources, and the biographical circumstances of the authors. These approaches, it was felt, tended to distract from the text and meaning of a poem and entirely neglect its aesthetic qualities in favor of teaching about external factors. On the other hand, the literary appreciation school, which limited itself to pointing out the "beauties" and morally elevating qualities of the text, was disparaged by the New Critics as too subjective and emotional. Condemning this as a version of Romanticism, they aimed for newer, systematic and objective method.
Diaspora:-
New Criticism and Formalism Theory New Criticism developed as a reaction to the older philological and literary history schools of the US North, which, influenced by nineteenth-century German scholarship, focused on the history and meaning of individual words and their relation to foreign and ancient languages, comparative sources, and the biographical circumstances of the authors. These approaches, it was felt, tended to distract from the text and meaning of a poem and entirely neglect its aesthetic qualities in favor of teaching about external factors. On the other hand, the literary appreciation school, which limited itself to pointing out the "beauties" and morally elevating qualities of the text, was disparaged by the New Critics as too subjective and emotional. Condemning this as a version of Romanticism, they aimed for newer, systematic and objective method.
Diaspora:-
A
diaspora (from Greek διασπορά,
"scattering, dispersion") is a scattered population whose origin
lies within a smaller geographic locale. Diaspora can also refer to the
movement of the population from its original homeland. Diaspora has come
to refer particularly to historical mass dispersions of an involuntary nature,
such as the expulsion
of Jews from Judea, the fleeing of Greeksafter the fall of Constantinople, the
African Trans-Atlantic
slave trade, the southern Chinese orHindus of South Asia during
the coolie trade,
the Irish during
and after the Irish Famine,
thePalestinian
diaspora,[3][4] and
the Jewish
exodus from Arab and Muslim countries in the 20th century, the exile
and deportation of Circassians,
and the emigration of Anglo-Saxon warriors
and their families after the Norman Conquest
of England, many of whom found employment inConstantinople and
bolstered the elite bodyguard of the emperor, the Varangian Guard.
Recently, scholars have distinguished between different kinds of diaspora, based on its causes such asimperialism, trade or labor migrations, or by the kind of social coherence within the diaspora community and its ties to the ancestral lands. Some diaspora communities maintain strong political ties with their homeland. Other qualities that may be typical of many diasporas are thoughts of return, relationships with other communities in the diaspora, and lack of full integration into the host country.
Post colonial:-
Postcolonialism or postcolonial studies is an academic discipline that analyzes, explains, and responds to the cultural legacy of colonialism and imperialism. Postcolonialism speaks about the human consequences of external control and economic exploitation of native people and their lands. Drawing from postmodern schools of thought, postcolonial studies analyse the politics of knowledge (creation, control, and distribution) by examining the functional relations of social and political powerthat sustain colonialism and neocolonialism—the imperial regime's depictions (social, political, cultural) of the colonizer and of the colonized.
As a genre of contemporary history, postcolonialism questions and reinvents the manner in which a culture is being viewed, challenging the narratives expounded during the colonial era. Anthropologically, it records human nations between the colonists and the peoples under colonial rule, seeking to build an understanding of the nature and practice of colonial rule. As a critical theory, it presents, explains, and illustrates the ideology and practice of neocolonialism with examples drawn from history, political science, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, and human geography. It also examines the effects of colonial rule on the cultural aspects of the colony and its treatment of women,language, literature, and humanity.
Psychoanalytical criticis:-
Recently, scholars have distinguished between different kinds of diaspora, based on its causes such asimperialism, trade or labor migrations, or by the kind of social coherence within the diaspora community and its ties to the ancestral lands. Some diaspora communities maintain strong political ties with their homeland. Other qualities that may be typical of many diasporas are thoughts of return, relationships with other communities in the diaspora, and lack of full integration into the host country.
Post colonial:-
Postcolonialism or postcolonial studies is an academic discipline that analyzes, explains, and responds to the cultural legacy of colonialism and imperialism. Postcolonialism speaks about the human consequences of external control and economic exploitation of native people and their lands. Drawing from postmodern schools of thought, postcolonial studies analyse the politics of knowledge (creation, control, and distribution) by examining the functional relations of social and political powerthat sustain colonialism and neocolonialism—the imperial regime's depictions (social, political, cultural) of the colonizer and of the colonized.
As a genre of contemporary history, postcolonialism questions and reinvents the manner in which a culture is being viewed, challenging the narratives expounded during the colonial era. Anthropologically, it records human nations between the colonists and the peoples under colonial rule, seeking to build an understanding of the nature and practice of colonial rule. As a critical theory, it presents, explains, and illustrates the ideology and practice of neocolonialism with examples drawn from history, political science, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, and human geography. It also examines the effects of colonial rule on the cultural aspects of the colony and its treatment of women,language, literature, and humanity.
Psychoanalytical criticis:-
Psychoanalytic
literary criticism is literary criticism or literary theory which,
in method, concept, or form, is influenced by the tradition of psychoanalysis begun
by Sigmund Freud.
Psychoanalytic reading has been practiced since the early development of psychoanalysis itself, and has developed into a heterogeneous interpretive tradition. As Celine Surprenant writes, 'Psychoanalytic literary criticism does not constitute a unified field. However, all variants endorse, at least to a certain degree, the idea that literature [...] is fundamentally entwined with the psyche'.
Psychoanalytic reading has been practiced since the early development of psychoanalysis itself, and has developed into a heterogeneous interpretive tradition. As Celine Surprenant writes, 'Psychoanalytic literary criticism does not constitute a unified field. However, all variants endorse, at least to a certain degree, the idea that literature [...] is fundamentally entwined with the psyche'.
The
object of psychoanalytic literary criticism, at its very simplest, can be the
psychoanalysis of theauthor or
of a particularly interesting character in a given work. The criticism is
similar to psychoanalysis itself, closely following the analytic interpretive
process discussed in Freud's The
Interpretation of Dreams and other works. Critics may view the
fictional characters as psychologicalcase studies, attempting to
identify such Freudian concepts as the Oedipus complex, penis envy,Freudian slips, Id, ego and superego and
so on, and demonstrate how they influence the thoughts and behaviors of
fictional characters.
However, more complex variations of psychoanalytic criticism are possible. The concepts of psychoanalysis can be deployed with reference to the narrative or poetic structure itself, without requiring access to the authorial psyche (an interpretation motivated by French psychoanalystJacques Lacan's remark that "the unconscious is structured like a language"). Or the founding texts of psychoanalysis may themselves be treated as literature, and re-read for the light cast by their formal qualities on their theoretical content (Freud's texts frequently resemble detective stories, or the archaeological narratives of which he was so fond).
Eco-criticism:-
However, more complex variations of psychoanalytic criticism are possible. The concepts of psychoanalysis can be deployed with reference to the narrative or poetic structure itself, without requiring access to the authorial psyche (an interpretation motivated by French psychoanalystJacques Lacan's remark that "the unconscious is structured like a language"). Or the founding texts of psychoanalysis may themselves be treated as literature, and re-read for the light cast by their formal qualities on their theoretical content (Freud's texts frequently resemble detective stories, or the archaeological narratives of which he was so fond).
Eco-criticism:-
Ecocriticism
is the study of literature and
the environment from
an interdisciplinary point
of view, where literature scholars analyze texts that illustrate environmental
concerns and examine the various ways literature treats the subject of nature. Some ecocritics
brainstorm possible solutions for the correction of the contemporary
environmental situation, though not all ecocritics agree on the purpose,
methodology, or scope of ecocriticism. In the United States, ecocriticism is
often associated with the Association
for the Study of Literature and Environment (ASLE), which hosts
biennial meetings for scholars who deal with environmental matters in
literature. ASLE publishes a journal—Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature
and Environment (ISLE)—in which current international scholarship can be found.
Ecocriticism is an intentionally broad approach that is known by a number of other designations, including "green (cultural) studies", "ecopoetics", and "environmental literary criticism" and is often informed by other fields such as ecology, sustainable design, biopolitics, environmental history,environmentalism, and social ecology, among others.
Queer Theory:-
Queer theory is a field of post-structuralist critical theory that emerged in the early 1990s out of the fields of queer studies and women's studies. Queer theory includes both queer readings of texts and the theorisation of 'queerness' itself. Heavily influenced by the work of Lauren Berlant, Leo Bersani,Judith Butler, Lee Edelman, Jack Halberstam, David Halperin, José Esteban Muñoz, and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, queer theory builds both upon feminist challenges to the idea that gender is part of the essential self and upon gay/lesbian studies' close examination of the socially constructed nature of sexual acts and identities. Whereas gay/lesbian studies focused its inquiries into natural and unnatural behaviour with respect to homosexual behaviour, queer theory expands its focus to encompass any kind of sexual activity or identity that falls into normative and deviant categories. Italian feminist and film theorist Teresa de Lauretis coined the term "queer theory" for a conference she organized at the University of California, Santa Cruz in 1990 and a special issue of Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies she edited based on that conference.
Queer theory "focuses on mismatches between sex, gender and desire." Queer has been associated most prominently with bisexual, lesbian and gay subjects, but its analytic framework also includes such topics as cross-dressing, intersex, gender ambiguity and gender-corrective surgery. Queer theory's attempted debunking of stable (and correlated) sexes, genders, and sexualities develops out of the specifically lesbian and gay reworking of the post-structuralist figuring of identity as a constellation of multiple and unstable positions. Queer theory examines the constitutive discourses of homosexuality developed in the last century in order to place "queer" in its historical context, and surveys contemporary arguments both for and against this latest terminology.
(https://www.wikipedia.org/)
Ecocriticism is an intentionally broad approach that is known by a number of other designations, including "green (cultural) studies", "ecopoetics", and "environmental literary criticism" and is often informed by other fields such as ecology, sustainable design, biopolitics, environmental history,environmentalism, and social ecology, among others.
Queer Theory:-
Queer theory is a field of post-structuralist critical theory that emerged in the early 1990s out of the fields of queer studies and women's studies. Queer theory includes both queer readings of texts and the theorisation of 'queerness' itself. Heavily influenced by the work of Lauren Berlant, Leo Bersani,Judith Butler, Lee Edelman, Jack Halberstam, David Halperin, José Esteban Muñoz, and Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, queer theory builds both upon feminist challenges to the idea that gender is part of the essential self and upon gay/lesbian studies' close examination of the socially constructed nature of sexual acts and identities. Whereas gay/lesbian studies focused its inquiries into natural and unnatural behaviour with respect to homosexual behaviour, queer theory expands its focus to encompass any kind of sexual activity or identity that falls into normative and deviant categories. Italian feminist and film theorist Teresa de Lauretis coined the term "queer theory" for a conference she organized at the University of California, Santa Cruz in 1990 and a special issue of Differences: A Journal of Feminist Cultural Studies she edited based on that conference.
Queer theory "focuses on mismatches between sex, gender and desire." Queer has been associated most prominently with bisexual, lesbian and gay subjects, but its analytic framework also includes such topics as cross-dressing, intersex, gender ambiguity and gender-corrective surgery. Queer theory's attempted debunking of stable (and correlated) sexes, genders, and sexualities develops out of the specifically lesbian and gay reworking of the post-structuralist figuring of identity as a constellation of multiple and unstable positions. Queer theory examines the constitutive discourses of homosexuality developed in the last century in order to place "queer" in its historical context, and surveys contemporary arguments both for and against this latest terminology.
(https://www.wikipedia.org/)
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